1989- The Struggle to Create Post-Cold War Europe Read online

  55. Kohl, Diekmann, and Reuth, Ich wollte, 151–52.

  56. “Speech of President Mitterrand to the European Parliament, Strasbourg, 22 November 1989,” in Lawrence Freedman, ed., Europe Transformed: Documents on the End of the Cold War—Key Treaties, Agreements, Statements, and Speeches (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1990), 367.

  57. Copies of the formal 1945 surrender and the subsequent legal modifications can be found in Karl Kaiser, Deutschlands Vereinigung: Die internationalen Aspekte (Bergisch-Gladbach: Lübbe Verlag, 1991).

  58. The so-called Deutschlandvertrag, or “Vertrag über die Beziehungen zwischen der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und den drei Mächten in der Fassung des am 23. Oktober 1954 in Paris unterzeichneten Protokolls über die Beendigung des Besatzungsregimes …,” had, as its name indicates, technically ended the occupation regime; see DESE, 546n30. On the history of the four powers in Germany, see Hanns Jürgen Küsters, Der Integrationsfriede: Viermächte-Verhandlungen über die Friedensregelung mit Deutschland 1945–1990 (Munich: R. Oldenbourg Verlag, 2000); for more on the United States specifically, see Klaus-Dietmar Henke, Die amerikanische Besetzung Deutschlands (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1995).

  59. Teltschik, 329 Tage, 23; Zelikow and Rice, Germany Unified, 106–7, 140–41; my concept of “restoration” as applied to Moscow’s plans is paraphrased from James Stevens Curl, Oxford Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 634.

  60. “Verbal Message from Mikhail Gorbachev to François Mitterrand, Margaret Thatcher and George Bush,” November 10, 1989, in CWIHPPC, original source DY 30/IV 2/2.039/319, SAPMO. Interestingly, the document is not reprinted in МГ.

  61. Zelikow and Rice, Germany Unified, 106–7; Teltschik, 329 Tage, 23.

  62. However, it would revive before long; see Zelikow and Rice, Germany Unified, 140.

  63. R. W. Apple, Jr., “Possibility of a Reunited Germany Is No Cause for Alarm, Says Bush,” New York Times, October 25, 1989, online. Kohl made the request in a telephone call on October 23, 1989; the U.S. transcript is available in CWIHPPC.

  64. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 187–88.

  65. Baker handwritten notes, “11/11,” “Maggie,” and press summaries from November 10, folder 11, November 1989, box 108, 8c monthly files, series 8, BP.

  66. “Guildhall Speech: Major Extract from Text of a Speech Made by the Prime Minister the Rt Hon Margaret Thatcher FRS MP at the Lord Mayor’s Banquet Guildhall on Monday 13 November 1989,” faxed from the British Embassy, Washington, DC, to 202-395-5221, Zelikow files, NSC, FOIA 2001-1166-F, BPL. See also “Speech Made by Margaret Thatcher at the Lord Mayor’s Banquet Guildhall,” reprinted in Freedman, Documents, 359–60.

  67. “Message from Prime Minister to Gorbachev,” and cover note from Charles Powell, 10 Downing Street, November 15, 1989, released by CAB via FOI.

  68. “Eastern Europe: Prime Minister’s Talk with President Bush,” note by Charles Powell, November 17, 1989, released by CAB via FOI.

  69. “Prime Minister’s Meeting with President Bush at Camp David on Friday 24 November,” summary sent by C. D. Powell, 10 Downing Street, to Stephen Wall, FCO, November 25, 1989, released by CAB via FOI.

  70. “11/12/89,” folder 11, box 108, 8c monthly files, series 8, BP.

  71. Letter from Gorbachev to Bush, received November 20, 1989, folder 12, box 108, 8c monthly files, series 8, BP.

  72. “Schreiben des Ministers für Nationale Verteidigung, Heinz Keßler, an Egon Krenz vom 13.11.1989: Abschrift eines Fernschreibens des Chefs des Stabes der Westgruppe der Streitkräfte der UdSSR, W. Fursin, an Generaloberst Fritz Streletz, 12.11.1989,” reprinted as document 35 in Hertle, Der Fall der Mauer, 555–57

  73. “Record of Telephone Conversation between Mikhail Gorbachev and President of France François Mitterrand, 14 November 1989,” notes of Anatoly Chernyaev, document 66 in GC, translation from GC.

  74. Küsters, “Entscheidung für die deutsche Einheit,” 61.

  75. “Gespräch des Bundeskanzlers Kohl mit dem Regierenden Bürgermeister Momper, Bonn, 1. Dezember 1989,” document 103, DESE, 578–86.

  76. Zelikow and Rice, Germany Unified, 104, 119.

  77. Victoria DeGrazia, Irresistible Empire: America’s Advance through Twentieth-Century Europe (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2005).

  78. On the topic of rape by the Red Army during its occupation of Germany, see Norman M. Naimark, The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949 (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1995), chapter 2.

  79. David Childs, “Beate Uhse,” Independent, September 10, 2001, online.

  80. “Da rollt eine Lawine,” Der Spiegel, November 20, 1989, 21–27.

  81. Küsters, “Entscheidung für die deutsche Einheit,” 61.

  82. Jonathan R. Zatlin, “Hard Marks and Soft Revolutionaries: The Economics of Entitlement and the Debate about German Monetary Union, November 9, 1989–March 18, 1990,” German Politics and Society 33 (Fall 1994): 1–28.

  83. For information about Modrow’s worldview, see Hans Modrow, ed., Das Große Haus: Insider berichten aus dem ZK der SED (Berlin: edition ost, 1995).

  84. The correspondence calling for the meeting is in the collection Zentraler Runder Tisch (hereafter ZRT), Ordner 1, RHG, Berlin.

  85. “m.s.,” Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, November 14, 1989, KASPA. See also document 4 in Konrad H. Jarausch and Volker Gransow, eds., Uniting Germany: Documents and Debates, 1944–1993 (Providence, RI: Berghahn Books, 1994), 109, where Grass says, “Yes, we are one people. But history has decreed that we live in two states”; see also John C. Torpey, Intellectuals, Socialism, and Dissent: The East German Opposition and Its Legacy (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995), 171.

  86. The summary in the above paragraphs comes from Horst Teltschik, interview with author, June 13, 2008, phone conversation; Teltschik, 329 Tage, 42–44; and the document cited below in note 87.

  87. “SU und ‘deutsche Frage,’” document 112A, DESE, 616–18.

  88. Alexander von Plato, Die Vereinigung Deutschlands—ein weltpolitisches Machtspiel: Bush, Kohl, Gorbatschow und die geheimen Moskauer Protokolle (Berlin: Links, 2002), 113–15; Zelikow and Rice, Germany Unified, 118.

  89. Zelikow and Rice, Germany Unified, 117–18; Jarausch, Die Umkehr, 292; Teltschik, 329 Tage, 43, and interview with author.

  90. “Zehn-Punkte-Programm zur Überwindung der Teilung Deutschlands und Europas: Rede von Bundeskanzler Kohl vor dem Deutschen Bundestag am 28. November 1989 (Auszüge),” in Auswärtiges Amt, Aussenpolitik, 632–38; Kohl, Diekmann, and Reuth, Ich wollte, 157–211; Teltschik, 329 Tage, 42–54. An English version is available in “Speech by Chancellor Kohl to the Bundestag on Intra-German Relations,” in Freedman, Documents, 372–76.

  91. The definition of revivalism is paraphrased from Curl, Oxford Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture, 636.

  92. See my book on this subject, Mary Elise Sarotte, Dealing with the Devil (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001).

  93. For a history of Germany before the Cold War period, see Gordon Craig, Germany, 1866–1945 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978); Hajo Holborn, A History of Modern Germany, 3 vols. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1959); James Sheehan, German History, 1770–1866 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989).

  94. “Zehn-Punkte-Programm,” in Auswärtiges Amt, Aussenpolitik, 635; Teltschik, 329 Tage, 52; memorandum from Harvey Sicherman to S/P—Dennis Ross, “Subject: Europe: Triumph or Tragedy?” December 14, 1989, from personal collection of the memo’s author. I am grateful to him for a copy of it.

  95. Zelikow and Rice, Germany Unified, 123. The telcon appears neither in DESE nor FOIA 1999-0393-F at the BPL.

  96. “Schreiben des Bundeskanzlers Kohl an Präsident Bush, Bonn, 28 November 1989,” document 101, DESE, 568.

  97. “Amembassy Bonn to Secstate Washdc,” December 1, 1989, “Subject: Kohl’s Ten-Point-Program—Silence on the Role
of the Four Powers,” telegram reprinted in CWIHPPC.

  98. Put another way, the transnational ties between governmental subunits were, as Thomas Risse-Kappen has argued, indeed stronger than national ties. Thomas Risse-Kappen, “The Cold War’s Endgame and German Unification,” International Security 21, no. 4 (Spring 1997): online.

  99. Horst Teltschik, interview with author, June 13, 2008, phone conversation.

  100. “Zehn-Punkte-Programm,” in Auswärtiges Amt, Aussenpolitik, 633.

  101. “Из беседы М.С. Горбачева с Дж. Андреотти,” November 29, 1989, МГ, 264–66; see also “Vorlage des Ministerialdirektors Hartmann an Bundeskanzler Kohl, Bonn, 1. Dezember 1989, Betr: Italienische Äußerungen zur deutschen Frage,” document 107, DESE, 595–96.

  102. “Soviet Spokesman,” International Herald Tribune, November 30, 1989, reprinted in Freedman, Documents, 377.

  103. At least two versions of Chernyaev’s account of this meeting exist. The most complete is in “Из беседы М.С. Горбачева с Г.-Д. Геншером,” December 5, 1989, МГ, 273–84. A shorter, translated version appears as document 70 in GC. Translation from GC. On this meeting, see also Teltschik, 329 Tage, 68; Küsters, “Entscheidung für die deutsche Einheit,” 70.

  104. Hans-Dietrich Genscher, Erinnerungen (Berlin: Siedler, 1995), 683.

  105. “Schreiben des Bundeskanzlers Kohl an Staatspräsident Mitterrand, Bonn, 27 Nov. 1989,” document 100, DESE, 565–66; see also Bozo, Mitterrand, 145.

  106. Teltschik, 329 Tage, 60–61.

  107. “Vorlage des Ministerialdirektors Teltschik an Bundeskanzler Kohl, Bonn, 30. November 1989, Betr.: Reaktion aus den wichtigsten Hauptstädten auf Ihren 10-Punkte Plan,” document 102, DESE, 574–77.

  108. Zelikow and Rice, Germany Unified, 117.

  109. Note from the president to “JAB III, Brent, John S., cc VP Dan Quayle,” November 18, 1989, with attachment of letter from Nixon to Bush, November 16, 1989, folder 10, box 115, POTUS notes, series 8, BP.

  110. “Draft RBZ 11/27/89, Points for Consultation with European Leaders,” filed with notes from “12/4/89 NATO Meeting following POTUS-Gorbachev Meeting,” folder 12, box 108, series 3, BP.

  111. Baker’s notes from Malta are available in various places in BP as cited below. Gorbachev published a German-language version in Michail S. Gorbatschow, Gipfelgespräche: Geheime Protokolle aus meiner Amtszeit (Berlin: Rowohlt, 1993), 93–129. Chernyaev’s notes have appeared in a variety of versions. They were published in Russian, and then translated into English for the limited-circulation CNN Cold War television series briefing book, Hutchings’s private collection. This paragraph draws on those places where Baker and Chernyaev agree, with the quotations coming from Baker’s version.

  112. Opening statement, “Used by G.B. at initial session. 10 am to 11 am on board Soviet Cruise Ship MAXIM GORKI,” handwritten on top by Baker, folder 9, box 176, 12c chapter files, series 12, BP.

  113. Baker’s handwritten notes from the Malta summit, “Page 4 of 2nd Day 12/3,” folder 12, box 108, series 8, BP. I am also grateful to Ambassador Robert Blackwill for sharing his recollections of the summit.

  114. “Memorandum of Conversation, Subject: Meeting with Helmut Kohl, Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany, Participants: the President, John H. Sununu, Chief of Staff, Brent Scowcroft, Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs,” December 3, 1989 in FOIA 1999-0393-F, also available in the NSA “End of the Cold War” boxes; “Gespräch des Bundeskanzlers Kohl mit Präsident Bush, Laeken bei Brüssel, 3. Dezember 1989, 20:30–22:30,” document 109, DESE, 600–609.

  115. Alexander Moens has argued that U.S. diplomacy was key at four points: first, at this point in December 1989, when it did not join in the chorus of criticism against Kohl’s Ten-Point-Program; second, when it agreed to the 2 +4; third, when it coordinated its position with Bonn on NATO; and fourth, in summer 1990, when it helped to reform NATO. See Alexander Moens, “American Diplomacy and German Unification,” Survival 33, no. 6 (November–December 1991): 531–45.

  116. Brent Scowcroft, interview with author, September 19, 2008, Washington, DC (in which he agreed that this meeting was more important than Malta); Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 199, 213; Philip Zelikow, interview with author, July 27, 2008, phone conversation and subsequent emails.

  117. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 255.

  118. “Memorandum of Conversation” and document 109, DESE (cited above in note 114). “UKDel NATO, to Deskby 04213OZFCO, Tel No 375,” December 4, 1989, p. 3, released by FCO under FOI. For more on the economic and social impact of East German immigration to the West, see A. James McAdams, Germany Divided: From the Wall to Reunification (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993), 204–6.

  119. Letter from Shevardnadze to Baker, December 8, 1989, folder 12, box 108, 8c monthly files, series 8, BP.

  120. “General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev’s Speech to Central Committee, 9 December 1989,” in Freedman, Documents, 384–91; report entitled “Germany” from C.D. Powell to J.S. Wall, FCO, December 8, 1989, released by CAB under FOI; “Vorlage des Ministerialdirigenten Hartmann an Bundeskanzler Kohl, Bonn, 18. Dez. 1989,” document 127, DESE, 660–61. See also Vojtech Mastny, ed., The Helsinki Process and the Reintegration of Europe, 1986–1991: Analysis and Documentation (New York: New York University Press, 1992), 194–96.

  121. “12/9,” folder 12, box 108, 8c monthly files, series 8, BP, written in the margins of the letter from Shevardnadze from December 8, 1989, cited above.

  122. “Information von Wjatschleslaw Kotschemassow, UdSSR-Botschafter in der DDR, an Hans Modrow, DDR-Ministerpräsident, über ein Treffen mit den Bonner Botschaftern der USA, Großbritanniens und Frankreichs am 11. Dezember 1989 in Westberlin (Auszüge),” reprinted as document 10 in Detlef Nakath, Gero Neugebauer, and Gerd-Rüdiger Stephan, “Im Kreml brennt noch Licht” Spitzenkontakte zwischen SED/PDS und KPdSU 1989–1991 (Berlin: Dietz, 1998), 93–97; “Gespräch des Bundesministers Seiters mit den Botschaftern der Drei Mächte, Bonn, 13. Dez.1989,” document 121, DESE, 641–42. For more on the context of this meeting, see GDE, 4:179–87.

  123. Zelikow and Rice, Germany Unified, 140–41; GDE, 4:922.

  124. For Baker’s materials from this visit, see folder 12, box 108, 8c monthly files, series 8, BP; for Baker’s memory of Kohl, see Politics of Diplomacy, 171–72. Baker’s speech is available in CFO1337-010, December 12, 1989, Susan Koch files, NSC, FOIA 2001-1166-F, BPL. See also “A New Europe, a New Atlanticism: Architecture for a New Era,” address by James A. Baker, Berlin Press Club, Berlin, December 12, 1989, from State Department press release, reprinted as document 59 in Mastny, Helsinki Process, 196–97; “Speech by US Secretary of State James Baker to Berlin Press Club,” in Freedman, Documents, 397–98. Freedman has mistakenly dated the press conference one day later; Baker’s schedule confirms that it took place on December 12.

  125. Baker’s note is available only in German translation so the text above is my English version of “Schreiben des Außenminister Baker an Bundeskanzler Kohl,” document 125, DESE, 658; see also footnote 1 to this document for a summary of the media coverage of Baker’s press conference. Television coverage of Baker’s visit, including Dan Rathers’s CBS report, is available in BP by date.

  126. Mitterrand, De l’Allemagne, 205–11, pointedly reproduces notes from his meetings “avec des étudiants, intellectuels et artistes” in Leipzig as well.

  127. “Из беседы М.С. Горбачева с Ф. Миттераном,” December 6, 1989, МГ, 286–91; a translated version appears in GC.

  128. “Gespräch des Bundeskanzlers Kohl mit Präsident Delors, Bonn, 5. Okt. 1989,” document 58 in DESE, 443.

  129. See Bozo, Mitterrand, 145–66; Küsters, “Entscheidung für die deutsche Einheit,” 71–72; Zelikow and Rice, Germany Unified, 137–38. For further details on France, see Robert L. Hutchings, American Diplomacy and the End of the Cold War: An Ins
ider’s Account of US Policy in Europe, 1989–1992 (Washington, DC: Wilson Center, 1997), 15ff.

  130. Kohl, Erinnerungen 1982–1990, 1012–13.

  131. Kohl, Erinnerungen 1982–1990, 1015–16; “European Council: European Political Cooperation Declaration on Central and Eastern Europe, 10 Dec. 1989,” in Freedman, Documents, 395–96; Kaiser, Deutschlands Vereinigung, 171–73. On the significance of this deal, see Bozo, Mitterrand, 25.

  132. See “Schreiben des Staatspräsidenten Mitterrand an Bundeskanzler Kohl, vom 1. Dez. 1989,” document 108A, DESE, 599–600; “Vorlage des Vortragenden Legationsrats I Bitterlich an Bundeskanzler Kohl, Bonn, 2./3. Dezember 1989,” document 108, DESE, 596–98; “Schreiben des Bundeskanzlers Kohl an Staatspräsident Mitterrand, Bonn, 5 Dez. 1989,” document 111, DESE, 614–15; Horst Teltschik, interview with author, June 13, 2008, phone conversation. See also GDE, 4:422–23; Gerhard A. Ritter, Der Preis der deutschen Einheit: Die Wiedervereinigung und die Krise des Sozialstaats (Munich: Beck, 2006), 60; Hans Stark, Helmut Kohl, l’Allemagne et l’Europe: La politique d’intégration européenne de la République fédérale 1982–1998 (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2004), 151.

  133. “European Council: Conclusions of the Presidency, 10 December 1989,” in Freedman, Documents, 392–94. For more on the timing of the intergovernmental conference, see also Rawi Abdelal, Capital Rules: The Construction of Global Finance (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), 78–79. For more on the evolution of the EC, see Barry Eichengreen, The European Economy since 1945: Coordinated Capitalism and Beyond (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007).